Making the most of scarcity : accountability for better water management results in the Middle East and North Africa / The World Bank. [Prep. by a team led by Julia Bucknall]. Washington, DC : The World Bank, 2007 ; Halle (Saale) : Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Sachsen-Anhalt, 2007
Inhalt
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Overview
List of Figures
Figure 1 Proportion of Regional Surface Freshwater Resources Stored in Reservoirs
Figure 2 Access to Improved Water Supply and Sanitation by Region, 2002
Figure 3 Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn, by Region
Chapter 1: Factors Inside and Outside the Water Sector Drive MENA's Water Outcomes
Hydrology Is Important, but Institutions and Policies Determine How Well Countries Manage the Water They Have
Figure 1.1 Actual Renewable Freshwater Resources per Capita, by Region
Figure 1.2 The Unusual Combination of Low Precipitation and High Variability in MENA Countries
Figure 1.3 Total Actual Renewable Water Resources per Capita in MENA
Figure 1.4 Share of Water Available or Used, by Source
List of Boxes
Box 1.1 Understanding Water Scarcity
Many Factors Driving Poor Water Outcomes Come from Outside the Water Sector
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Perverse Incentives for Excess Irrigation
Table 1.2 Public Expenditure on Water, as a Share of GDP
MENA Countries Are Facing New Water Challenges
List of Maps
Map 1 Aridity Zoning
Map 2 Population Density
Map 3 Urban versus Rural Areas
Figure 1.5 Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn, by Region
Map 4 Area Equipped for Irrigation
Box 1.2 Water and Land Disputes Leave Many Dead, According to the Yemeni Press
Figure 1.6 Value of Groundwater Depletion in Selected MENA Countries
The Region Faces Three Types of Scarcity
Figure 1.7 The Three Levels of Scarcity
The Pace of Reform Is Determined by the Political Economy
Figure 1.8 Model of the Political Economy of Decision Making
Structure of the Report
Chapter 2: Progress, but Problems
Progress Dealing with Scarcity of the Physical Resource
Figure 2.1 Proportion of Regional Surface Freshwater Resources Stored in Reservoirs
Table 2.1 Total Dam Capacity and Share of Freshwater Stored in Reservoirs, by Country
Box 2.1 Benefits from the Aswan High Dam
Figure 2.2 Fill Rate of Dams in Morocco, 1986–2004
Figure 2.3 Frequency of Two Consecutive Drought Years in December in Morocco, Based on Four Different Starting Years
Table 2.2 Desalination Capacity in Non-Gulf MENA Countries
Table 2.3 Percentage of Population with Access to Improved Water and Basic Sanitation
Table 2.4 Area Equipped for Irrigation in MENA, 2000
Progress Dealing with Organizational Scarcity
Figure 2.4 Evaluation of Water Policies and Organizations: MENA and Comparator Countries, 2004
Box 2.2 Progress Providing Water Supply
Progress Dealing with Scarcity of Accountability
Figure 2.5 Nonrevenue Water Ratio for Utilities in Select Countries and Major Cities
Table 2.5 Strength of Environmental NGOs in the MENA Region
Conclusion
Chapter 3: Several Factors That Drive the Politics of Water Reform Are Changing
Figure 3.1 Political and Social Forces Acting on Interest Groups
Economic Forces Driving Change
Table 3.1 Returns to Water Use in the MENA Region, by Crop
Figure 3.2 Labor Requirements of Moroccan Agriculture
Table 3.2 Fruit and Vegetables' Annual Growth Rates, 1980–2000
Figure 3.3 Farm Employment and the Aggregate Measure of Support (AMS) for Agriculture, 2000
Figure 3.4 Change in Agricultural Value-Added and GDP per Capita Growth, MENA, 1975–2005
Table 3.3 The Fiscal Context of Irrigation and Water Supply Sector Reforms
Figure 3.5 Oil Prices Drive Budget Balances
Figure 3.6 Energy Production and Water Cost Recovery in 11 MENA Countries
Environmental Forces Driving Change
Table 3.4 Socioeconomic Implications of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in Some Middle Eastern Countries
Social Forces Driving Change
Box 3.1 Demographic Changes Drive Different Responses to Water Crises
Box 3.2 Changing Social Priorities Affected Water Lobbies in Spain and the United States
International Drivers of Change
Institutional Changes That Can Reduce the Social Impact of Reform
Box 3.3 Water as a Vehicle for Cooperation: The Nile Basin Initiative
Box 3.4 Changing Agricultural Support in Turkey
Figure 3.7 Operating Cost Coverage Ratio for Utilities in Select Countries and Major Cities in MENA
Box 3.5 Complex Rules for Ensuring Equitable Distribution of Water in the Oases of the Western Desert of Egypt
Conclusion
Table 3.5 Mechanisms for Resolving Conflict over Water: Tradition versus Modernity
Chapter 4: MENA Countries Can Leverage the Potential for Change by Improving External Accountability
Strong Economies and Accountability Mechanisms Have Helped Some Arid Countries Reform Water Management
Box 4.1 Transformation of the Economy and the Water Management System in Spain
MENA's Water Organizations Are Operating in an Environment of Inadequate Accountability to Users
Figure 4.1 Water Policies and Institutions Are Stronger but Accountability Weaker in MENA Than in 27 Comparator Countries
Figure 4.2 Quality of Services in MENA Countries, by Relative Level of Accountability
How Does External Accountability Relate to Water Outcomes?
Figure 4.3 Command Area of Dams and Irrigation Infrastructure in Iran and Algeria
Figure 4.4 Annual Cost of Environmental Degradation of Water
Table 4.1 Selected Operating Performance Indicators for MENA Water Utilities
Table 4.2 Excess Cost of Vended Water Compared with Utility Water in Selected MENA Cities
Conclusions
Chapter 5: MENA Countries Can Meet the Water Management Challenges of the Twenty-First Century
Figure 5.1 Policy Objectives and Responses to the Three Stages of Water Management in Arid Regions
Options for Nonwater Policy Makers to Affect Political Opportunities
Box 5.1 Changing the Priority Given to Water through Economic Analysis in Ethiopia
Figure 5.2 Types of Benefits from Services Derived from Different Water Investments
Box 5.2 Accountability Mechanisms for the National Water and Sewage Corporation, Uganda
Options for Improving Accountability within the Water Sector
Box 5.3 Tradeable Water Rights Can Promote Efficiency, Sustainability, and Voluntary Reallocation of Water
Table 5.1 Institutional Responsibility for Water Management
Box 5.4 Use of Data to Stimulate Change in Water Utilities in Syria
Applying the Approach in Practice
Conclusion
Appendixes
Table A1.1 Actual Renewable Water Resources per Capita, by Region
Figure A1.1 Actual Renewable Water Resources per Capita, by Region
Appendix 1 Water Resources Data
Table A1.2 Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn, by Region
Figure A1.2 Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn, by Region
Table A1.3 Total Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn per Capita, by Region
Figure A1.3 Total Renewable Water Resources Withdrawn per Capita, by Region
Figure A1.4 Total Renewable Water Resources per Capita, by Country (actual)
Table A1.4 Total Renewable Water Resources per Capita, by Country
Figure A1.5a Volume of Water Resources Available, by Source
Figure A1.5b Percentage of Water Resources Available, by Source
Table A1.5 Water Available or Used, by Source
Table A1.6 Total Water Withdrawal as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources
Figure A1.6 Total Water Withdrawal as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources
Figure A1.7 Dependency Ratio
Table A1.7 Dependency Ratio
Figure A1.8 Water Withdrawal, by Sector
Table A1.8 Water Withdrawal, by Sector
Table A1.9 Water Stored in Reservoirs as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources
Figure A1.9 Water Stored in Reservoirs as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources
Table A1.10 Dam Capacity as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources in MENA
Figure A1.10 Dam Capacity as a Percentage of Total Renewable Water Resources in MENA
Figure A1.11 MENA Region Rural and Urban Population Trends, 1950–2030
Table A1.11 MENA Region Rural and Urban Population Trends, 1950–2030
Figure A2.1 Percent with Access to Water Services
Appendix 2 Water Services Data
Figure A2.2 Water Requirement Ratio
Figure A2.3 Operating Cost Coverage Ratio for Utilities in Selected Countries and Major Cities in MENA
Table A2.1 Sources for Operating Cost Coverage Ratios
Figure A2.4 Nonrevenue Water Ratio for Utilities in Selected Countries and Major Cities in MENA
Table A2.2 Sources for Nonrevenue Water Ratio
Appendix 3 Country Profiles
Figure A3.1 Algeria's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.2 Bahrain's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.3 Djibouti's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.4 Egypt's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.5 Iran's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.6 Jordan's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.7 Kuwait's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.8 Lebanon's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.9 Morocco's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.10 Oman's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.11 Qatar's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.12 Saudi Arabia's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.13 Syria's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.14 Tunisia's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.15 United Arab Emirates' Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.16 West Bank and Gaza's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Figure A3.17 Yemen's Position on Three Dimensions of Water Service
Appendix 4 Case Studies: Mitigating Risks and Conflict
References
Index